What is Organic Production?

Organic production is based on a system of farming that maintains and replenishes soil fertility without the use of toxic and persistent pesticides and fertilisers and genetically modified seeds.

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Organic Cotton Growing Countries

Organic cotton was grown in 22 countries in 2004-05, led by Turkey (40%), India (25%), the United States (7.7%) and China (7.3%). In 2005-06, these four countries were expected to grow 79% of the global organic fibre crop.

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Global Organic Cotton Market

Global Organic Cotton Products market was estimated to be around US$1bn in 2006. It has been forecasted to increase to $6.8bn by 2010.

Requirements to be Met by Pretreatment Processes

Chemical-Technological Requirements

• Optimal elimination of admixtures (impurities)
• Uniformity of effects (no spots); levelness
• High absorbency
• Low ash content
• High degree of whiteness
• Absolute absence of husks
• Optimum swelling of the fibres
• High dye absorbing power
• Elimination of dead and unripe cotton
  

Mechanical-technological requirements

• Good dimensional stability
• Crease and wrinkle resistance
• Minimum loss in DP
  

Economical-ecological requirements

• Shorter processes
• Shorter reaction times
• Less energy consumption
• Less labour time
• Less chemical consumption
• Less water consumption and thus less effluent

Important Considerations in Dyeing with Vat Dyes

Vat dyes are the primary choice where the highest degree of fastness to industrial laundering, weathering and light are required. Based on temperature, amount of caustic soda, hydrosulphite and salt, used in dyeing, vat dyes can be classified into four main groups:

• IN dyes require high temperature, and a large amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite;
• IW dyes require medium temperature and a medium amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite with salt added;
• IK dyes require low temperature and a small amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite with salt added; and
• IN Special dyes require more caustic soda and higher temperature than IN dyes.

Generally speaking, vat dyes have a very rapid strike, a good degree of exhaustion and a very low rate of diffusion within the fibre. Vat dyes of different chemical structure may differ in the solubility of their sodium leuco-vat, stability towards over-reduction, stability towards over-oxidation, substantivity and rate of diffusion. Commercial competitive dyes have fairly equal particle sizes. Large particle sizes give dispersions of poor stability. For some vat dyes, colour yield decreases with increasing particle size. The effect is generally dye-specific.

The main stages in the dyeing of cotton with vat dyes are as follows:

• Conversion of insoluble vat pigment into soluble sodium leuco-vat anions [reduction]
• Diffusion of sodium leuco-vat anions into cellulosic fibres
• Removal of excess alkali and reducing agents by washing off
• Oxidation of the soluble dye into insoluble pigmentary form within the cellulosic fibres, and
• Soaping, during which the isolated molecules of vat pigments are re-orientated and associate into a different, more crystalline form

Important requirements of vat dye reducing agent are as follows:

• A level of reducing power (reduction potential) sufficient to reduce all commercial vat dyes to their water soluble form, quickly and economically
• Conversion of the vat dyes into products from which the original pigment can be restored (no over-reduction)

Various reducing systems for vat dyes have been proposed and used. The most common type of reducing agent used for dyeing with vat dyes is sodium hydrosulphite, commonly known as hydros but more correctly known as sodium dithionite, which has the chemical formula Na2S2O4. Although a part of the hydros is used up in the reduction of vat dyes, a large part of it may be destroyed by its reaction with oxygen in the air (oxidation), particularly at higher temperatures.

The rate of reduction of vat dyes depends upon various factors, such as the following:

• Particle size of the dye,
• The temperature, time and pH during reduction, and
• Concentration of the reducing agent

The stability of alkaline solutions of reducing agents may decrease with increased temperature, greater exposure to air, greater agitation and lower concentration of the reducing agent. Vat dyes of the Indanthrene type may produce duller or greener shades at dyeing temperatures higher than 60 °C due to over-reduction. Over-reduction can be prevented by the use of sodium nitrite if the reducing agent is hydrosulphite. In the case of thiourea oxide, over-reduction cannot be prevented by nitrite.

The factors influencing the rate of dyeing with vat dyes include the following:

• Type of the substrate,
• Temperature,
• Liquor ratio,
• Concentration of dye, and
• Concentration of electrolyte

Mercerized cotton gives a higher rate of dyeing as compared to un-mercerized cotton which in turn gives higher rate than the grey material. At low temperature, the rate of exhaustion is low which might promote levelness but the rate of diffusion is also low. At high temperature, the rate of exhaustion is high which might decrease levelness but the rate of diffusion is high. Maximum exhaustion, penetration and levelness can be obtained by starting the dyeing at low temperatures in the leuco stage and slowly raising the temperature. Some dyes may not be stable to very high temperatures, so the stability of dyes to temperature must be taken into account. The reducing efficiency of sodium hydrosulphite in caustic soda solutions at high temperatures decreases rapidly in the presence of air. The higher the liquor ratio, the slower is the rate of dyeing. Most of the dyes exhaust more rapidly at low concentrations, increasing the risk of unlevel dyeing in light shades. Some have the same rate of dyeing irrespective of the concentration. The higher the concentration of electrolyte, the higher is the rate of dyeing.

The purpose of rinsing before oxidation is to remove any loose dye, excess of reducing agent and alkali to lower the pH and establish conditions favourable for oxidation. The higher the temperature and/or pH of the rinsing bath, the lower is the colour strength. Very high pH and temperature during rinsing may also result in the dulling of the shade. The ideal is to do rinsing thoroughly at low temperature at a rinsing bath pH value of 7.

The purpose of oxidation is to convert the water-soluble leuco from of the vat dye, back into the insoluble pigment form. The important variables for the oxidizing step are:

• The type and concentration of oxidising agent,
• The type of pH regulator and pH during oxidation, and
• Temperature during oxidation

The oxidizing agent must provide a level of oxidation potential sufficient to oxidize the reduced vat dye into insoluble pigment, with no over-oxidation i.e., beyond the oxidation state of the original pigmentary form of the dye. Poor control of pH during oxidation may result in uneven oxidation and a lower temperature may result in slower oxidation. A pH below 7.5 should be avoided to prevent the possible formation of acid leuco form of vat dyes. The optimum pH for oxidation is 7.5-8.5. The acid leuco form of vat dye is difficult to oxidize, has little affinity for fibre and is easily rinsed out. The higher the temperature, the faster is the oxidation, the optimum temperature being 120-140 °F.

The purpose of soaping after oxidation is to remove any dye that is not diffused into the fibre and to stabilise the final shade. This results in improved fastness properties and resistance to any shade change to a resin or other finish or to consumer use. Important soaping parameters are:

• Time,
• Temperature,
• Type and concentration of soaping auxiliaries

Even when no detergent is used, the dyeings exhibit good colour strength and good fastness properties. Washing with water alone tends to give a slightly higher colour yield. It is best to carry out soaping without any detergent at boiling temperature. After soaping the fabric is rinsed and dried

Both exhaust and continuous dyeing methods are used to apply vat dyes. Exhaust dyeing processes are mainly used for dyeing of loose stock, yarn and knitted fabrics. Woven fabrics can also be dyed by exhaust method but for large batch sizes, the continuous method is mostly used.

Pad dyeing methods are usually a preference in case of woven fabrics particularly, if these are in large batches. The commonly used pad dyeing methods are pad-jig, pad steam and pad thermosol. The most popular method for dyeing woven fabrics in a continuous manner is pad-dry-pad-steam method, consisting of the following key steps:

• Impregnation of the fabric in a bath containing vat dye, dispersing agent, anti-migrant and a non-foaming wetting agent
• Squeezing the impregnated fabric to a given pick up level
• Drying the fabric to achieve a uniform distribution of the vat pigment throughout the fabric
• Impregnating the fabric with a solution of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite, with the optional use of salt
• Expressing the impregnated fabric to a given pick up level
• Steaming the fabric to bring about reduction of the dye to the soluble leuco form and to promote diffusion of the dye into the cellulosic fibres, and
• Rinsing, oxidation, soaping, rinsing and drying the fabric

Intermediate drying is one of the most important steps in the pad-dry-pad-steam process where the most common problem ‘migration’ can take place. Important factors on which migration depends are as follows:

• Dye constitution,
• Dye formulation,
• Pick-up,
• Additives in the dye padder,
• Residues of wetting agents and lubricants on the fabric,
• Fabric structure, and
• Drying conditions

After drying, the fabric is padded with an alkaline solution of sodium hydrosulphite, after which the fabric undergoes steaming. Almost 40 % of vat dyeing problems are related to improper steaming conditions. Ideal steaming conditions are controlled temperature and moisture, freedom from air, and sufficient dwell time. After steaming, the fabric undergoes rinsing, oxidation and soaping.

The most important control steps in vat dyeing are reduction, absorption and oxidation. The reduction and oxidation can best be controlled by metered addition of chemicals. The advantages of metered addition of hydrosulphite are as follows:

• Better levelling by slower vatting
• No need of levelling agent
• Protection from over-reduction
• Control of initial rate of dyeing (strike)
• Possibility of warm pre-pigmentation to give optimum fabric/liquor movement
• Good reproducibility
• Reduction of sulphite/sulphate effluent pollution, and
• Automatic monitoring of vat state and the redox potential by means of measuring and regulating technology

The dosage of hydrogen peroxide in the oxidation tank, by measuring and controlling the pH has the advantages of constant pH during the production run, the presence of enough peroxide for oxidation and controlled speed of oxidation.

Common Problems in Singeing & Their Countermeasures

Textile fabrics are normally singed in order to improve their surface appearance and wearing properties. The burning-off of protruding fibre-ends, which are not firmly bound in the yarn, results in a clean surface which allows the structure of the fabric to be clearly seen. Un-singed fabrics soil more easily than singed fabrics. Similarly, the risk of cloudy dyeings with singed articles dyed in dark shades is considerably reduced than un-singed articles.
Although textile materials can be singed in yarn, knitted or woven forms, singeing of woven fabrics is much more common as compared to other forms. Two main methods of singeing are direct flame singeing and indirect flame singeing. The important direct flame singeing parameters are:

• Singeing position
• Flame intensity
• Fabric speed
• Distance between the fabric and the burner
• Moisture in the fabric coming for singeing
  

If any one or more of the above parameters are not optimal, the result may be faulty singeing. There may be singeing faults which are optically demonstrable and are quite easily remedied during the actual working process. On the other hand there may be some singeing faults which are not visible until after dyeing and which can, once occurred, no longer be repaired. A summary of most common problems in the singing of woven fabrics is given in Table 1.

Table 1 Common Problems in Singeing and Their Countermeasures

Problems	Causes	Countermeasures
Incomplete singeing	1. Too low flame intensity 2. Too fast fabric speed 3. Too far distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Inappropriate singeing position [not severe enough] 5. Too much moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing	1. Optimum flame intensity 2. Optimum fabric speed 3. Optimum distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Optimum singeing position 5. No excess moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing
Uneven singeing [widthways]	1. Non-uniform moisture content across the fabric width 2. Non-uniform flame intensity across the fabric width 3. Uneven distance between the burner and the fabric	1. Uniform moisture content across the fabric width 2. Uniform flame intensity across the fabric width 3. Uniform distance between the fabric and the burner
Uneven singeing [lengthways]	1. Non-uniform moisture content along the fabric length 2. Non-uniform flame intensity along the fabric length 3. Change in fabric speed during singeing 4. Change in the distance between the fabric and the burner along the length	1. Uniform moisture content along the fabric length 2. Uniform flame intensity along the fabric length 3. Uniform fabric speed during singeing 4. Uniform distance between the fabric and the burner along the length
Thermal damage or Reduction in tear strength	1. Too high flame intensity 2. Too slow fabric speed 3. Too close distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Inappropriate singeing position [too severe]	1. Optimum flame intensity 2. Optimum fabric speed 3. Optimum distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Optimum singeing position

Common Problems in Desizing & Their Countermeasures

Desizing is done in order to remove the size from the warp yarns of the woven fabrics. Warp yarns are coated with sizing agents prior to weaving in order to reduce their frictional properties, decrease yarn breakages on the loom and improve weaving productivity by increasing weft insertion speeds. The sizing material present on the warp yarns can act as a resist towards dyes and chemicals in textile wet processing. It must, therefore, be removed before any subsequent wet processing of the fabric. The factors, on which the efficiency of size removal depends, are as follows:

• Type and amount of size applied
• Viscosity of the size in solution
• Ease of dissolution of the size film on the yarn
• Nature and the amount of the plasticizers
• Fabric construction
• Method of desizing, and
• Method of washing-off

Different methods of desizing are:

• Enzymatic desizing
• Oxidative desizing
• Acid steeping
• Rot steeping
• Desizing with hot caustic soda treatment, and
• Hot washing with detergents

The most commonly used methods for cotton are enzymatic desizing and oxidative desizing. Acid steeping is a risky process and may result in the degradation of cotton cellulose while rot steeping, hot caustic soda treatment and hot washing with detergents are less efficient for the removal the starch sizes.

Enzymatic desizing consists of three main steps: application of the enzyme, digestion of the starch and removal of the digestion products. The common components of an enzymatic desizing bath are as follows:

• Amylase enzyme
• pH stabiliser
• Chelating agent
• Salt
• Surfactant, and
• Optical brightener

The enzymes are only active within a specific range of pH, which must be maintained by a suitable pH stabiliser. Chelating agents used to sequester calcium or combine heavy metals may be injurious to the enzymes and must be tested before use. Certain salts may be used to enhance the temperature stability of enzymes. Surfactants may be used to improve the wettability of the fabric and improve the size removal. Generally, non-ionic surfactants are suitable but it is always recommended to test the compatibility of surfactants before use. Some brighteners may also be incorporated in the desizing bath which may be carried through the end of the pre-treatment, resulting in improved brightness but again, their compatibility must be ascertained before use.

Enzymatic desizing offers the following advantages:

• No damage to the fibre
• No usage of aggressive chemicals
• Wide variety of application processes, and
• High biodegradability

Some disadvantages of enzymatic desizing include lower additional cleaning effect towards other impurities, no effect on certain starches (e.g. tapioca starch) and possible loss of effectiveness through enzyme poisons.

Oxidative desizing can be affected by hydrogen peroxide, chlorites, hypochlorites, bromites, perborates or persulphates. Two important oxidative desizing processes are: the cold pad-batch process based on hydrogen peroxide with or without the addition of persulphate; and the oxidative pad-steam alkaline cracking process with hydrogen peroxide or persulphate. The advantages offered by oxidative desizing are:

• Supplementary cleaning effect
• Effectiveness for tapioca starches
• No loss in effectiveness due to enzyme poisons

Some disadvantages of oxidative desizing include possibility of fibre attack, use of aggressive chemicals and less variety of application methods.

After desizing, the fabric is systematically analyzed to determine the uniformity and thoroughness of the treatment. A sample is taken and weighed to determine the percent size removed. The results are compared with a sample known to have been desized well in the lab. If the size is not adequately removed then either the treatment or washing have not been thorough. Iodine spot tests are then conducted on the fabric. The fabric is not spotted randomly but from side-centre-side at different points along the length of the fabric. The results of this evaluation give some idea of the causes of any inadequate treatment.

Some of the most common problems in enzymatic desizing are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Common Problems in Enzymatic Desizing and Their countermeasures

Problems	Causes	Countermeasures
Incomplete desizing	1. Inadequate enzyme 2. Inappropriate desizing bath pH 3. Inappropriate desizing-bath temperature 4. Insufficient fabric pick-up 5. Insufficient digestion time 6. Poor enzyme activity 7. Deactivation of enzyme due to presence of metals or ther contaminants 8. Ineffective wetting agent 9. Incompatible wetting agent	1. Sufficient enzyme 2. Optimum pH 3. Optimum temperature 4a. Optimum squeeze pressure 4b. Use of wetting agent 5. Optimum digestion time 6. Use of good enzymes 7a. Use of soft water 7b. Use of appropriate sequestering agents 8. Use of good and effective agent 9. Use of compatible wetting agent
Uneven desizing [widthways]	1. Uneven pad pressure [across the width] 2. Non-uniform pad temperature 3. Non-uniform chemical concentration in the bath	1. Uniform squeeze pressure 2. Uniform bath temperature 3. Uniform chemical concentration
Uneven desizing [lengthways]	1. Uneven pick-up [along the length] 2. Preferential drying of outer layers of the batch 3. Temperature variation during digestion	1. Uniform pick-up along the fabric length 2a. Covering the batch with polythene or other suitable sheet 2b. Keeping the batch rolling 3a. Covering the batch with polythene or other suitable sheet 3b. Keeping the batch rolling
Uneven desizing [random]	1. Poor wetting agent 2. Inappropriate bath temperature 3. Foaming in the bath 4. Improper use of defoamer 5. Uneven liquor distribution during padding 6. Non-uniform washing after desizing	1. Use of effective and compatible wetting agent 2. Optimum bath temperature 3. Use of appropriate defoamers 4. Use of appropriate defoamers 5. Uniform liquor distribution during padding 6. Thorough and uniform washing after desizing